Historical Places Of India

India is a diverse country steeped in history. Its past has seen a melting pot of different religions, rulers and empires -- all of which have left their mark on the countryside. Many historical places in India are listed as World Heritage sites due to their cultural importance.

Visit these popular historical places in India and take a trip back in time to ancient India. You'll marvel at the architecture of what are some of the most stunning and captivating historical attractions that India has to offer.

1. The Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal looms fairytale-like from the banks of the Yamuna River. It's India’s most recognized monument and is also one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The Taj Mahal has a rich history dating back to 1630 AD. It’s actually a tomb that contains the body of Mumtaz Mahal -- the wife of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. He had it built as an ode to his love for her. It's made out of marble and took 22 years and 20 000 workers to complete. Words cannot do the Taj Mahal justice, its incredible detail simply has to be seen to be appreciated. 

The Taj Mahal looms fairytale-like from the banks of the Yamuna River. It's India’s most recognized monument and is also one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The Taj Mahal has a rich history dating back to 1630 AD. It’s actually a tomb that contains the body of Mumtaz Mahal -- the wife of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. He had it built as an ode to his love for her. It's made out of marble and took 22 years and 20 000 workers to complete. Words cannot do the Taj Mahal justice, its incredible detail simply has to be seen to be appreciated. 

Taj Mahal Location:

The Taj Mahal is located in Agra, in the state of Uttar Pradesh, approximately 200 kilometers (125 miles) from Delhi. 

Getting to the Taj Mahal:

Agra is well connected by rail. The main railway station is Agra Cantt. High speed Shatabdi Express services operate from Delhi, Varanasi, and cities in Rajasthan. Alternatively you can fly from major Indian cities.


Trains from Delhi to Agra

Taj Mahal Opening Hours:

6 a.m. to 7 p.m. every day except Friday (when it's closed for prayer). The Taj Mahal is also open for moonlight viewing from 8.30 p.m. until 12.30 a.m., two days before and after each full moon.

Taj Mahal Cost:

For foreigners, the entrance fee to the Taj Mahal consists of a 250 rupee Entry Tax (Archeological Society of India) and 500 rupees Toll Tax (Agra Development Authority). Indian nationals only pay is 20 rupees (50 cents). Children younger than 15 years are free. Night time tickets cost 750 rupees for foreigners and 500 rupees for Indian nationals, for half an hour’s admittance. These tickets must be purchased 24 hours in advance from the Archaeological Survey of India office on Mall Road.

Taj Mahal Festivals:

The week long Taj Mahotsav takes place at Shilpgram in Agra, right near the Taj Mahal, from February 18-27 each year. The focus of this festival is on arts, crafts, Indian culture, and recreating the Mughal era. It gets underway with a spectacular procession that includes elephants, camels, and drummers. Elephant and camel rides are on offer, and there are also games for the kids, and a food festival. The venue has special significance, as it's apparently located on the site where the artisans who built the Taj Mahal once lived.

Taj Mahal Travel Tips:

The Taj Mahal appears to gradually alter its color in the changing light of the day. It’s well worth the effort to get up early and spend sunrise there, as it majestically reveals itself. Be prepared to encounter plenty of beggars and touts at the entrance. If you don’t want to pay the costly admission fee or battle the crowds, you can get a great view of the Taj from across the river bank. Agra is a rather dirty and characterless city, so don’t spend more than a day there. The best time to visit is from November to February, otherwise it can be unbearably hot or rainy. 

Agra Hotels:

Unfortunately, many of the hotels in Agra are as uninspiring as the city itself. However, these 5 Appealing Hotels in Agra should help make your stay a memorable one. There are hotels to suit all budgets. 

Side Trips from Agra:

The deserted Mogul capital of Fatehpur Sikri is 40 kilometers (25 miles) from Agra and can easily be visited on a day trip. Nature lovers will appreciate a trip to the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary at the Keoladeo Ghana National Park, 55 kilometers (34 miles) from Agra. Another place of interest is the beautifully carved, red ocher sandstone tomb that's Akbar's Mausoleum. It's located at Sikandra, only 13 kilometers (8 miles) from Agra.

2. Hampi

Hampi is a laid back village that was the last capital of Vijayanagar, one of the greatest Hindu kingdoms in India’s history. It has some extremely captivating ruins, intriguingly intermingled with large boulders that rear up all over the landscape.

The ruins, which date back to the 14th century, stretch for just over 25 kilometers (10 miles) and comprise more than 500 monuments. The most striking monument is the Vittala Temple, dedicated to Lord Vishnu. Its main hall has 56 pillars that make musical sounds when struck.

Hampi Location:

Hampi is in central Karnataka, approximately 350 kilometers (217 miles) from Bangalore. 

 

Getting to Hampi:

The closest railway station is in Hospet, around half an hour away. Private buses also operate from Bangalore and Goa, and will drop you in Hospet. From Hospet, take an autorickshaw to Hampi. The fare is around 100 rupees ($2.30).

Hampi Opening Hours:

The ruins can be explored at leisure. The Vittala Temple is open from 8.30 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. daily, and it’s worth getting there as early as possible to beat the crowds. The Elephant Stables, which once housed the royal elephants, is open from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. daily. 

Hampi Cost:

There’s no cost to explore most of the ruins. The Vittala Temple and Elephant Stables are two places that do charge an entrance fee of $US 5 each for foreigners. Children younger than 15 years are free.

Hampi Festivals:

If you enjoy culture, make sure you catch the three day Hampi Festival (also known as the Vijaya Utsav) that's held in the first week of November each year. Dance, drama, music, fireworks, and puppet shows all take place against the ruins of Hampi. Be prepared to battle the crowds though! Hampi also holds a Purandaradasa Aradhana classical music festival in January/February each year to celebrate the birthday of Purandaradasa, a poet who lived there. In March/April the largest religious festival in Hampi, the Virupaksha Car Festival, takes place to mark the annual marriage ritual of the gods and goddesses.

Hampi Travel Tips:

An incredible energy can be felt at Hampi. The sunrise and sunset over the village, viewed from atop the central Matanga Hill, are truly magical and are not to be missed. Be sure to have a comfortable pair of shoes with you as some of the ruins can only be accessed on foot and you’ll need to walk quite a distance in order to explore them. Try taking a ferry trip across the river to Anegondi and exploring the relics there. Alternatively, it's a good idea to hire a bicycle to get around. The best time to visit is from November to February. In March it starts getting unbearably hot. 

Hampi Hotels:

Unfortunately, Hampi is lacking in quality hotels, so if you want to stay in a place with more amenities, Hospet is a better choice. It lacks Hampi's eerie charm though. Ambient, simply furnished guesthouses are plentiful in Hampi. There are two main areas to stay in Hampi -- near the bus stand and Main Bazaar, and on the other side of the river in Virupapur Gadde. Virupapur Gadde, with it's chilled out environment on the edge of paddy fields, attracts plenty of hippie types.

3. Khajuraho Temples

If you want proof that the Kama Sutra originated in India, Khajuraho is the place to see. Erotica abounds here with over 20 temples devoted to sexuality and sex. These sandstone temples, which date back to the 10th and 11th century, are the only ones remaining out of 85 temples constructed during this time.

There are 3 groups of temples -- Western, Eastern, and Southern. The main temples are in the Western group, which features the magnificent Kandariya Mahadeo Temple. The Eastern Group contains a number of exquisitely sculptured Jain temples. There are only two temples in the Southern group. 

Khajuraho Location:

Khajuraho is in northern Madhya Pradesh, approximately 620 kilometers (385 miles) south east of Delhi.

Getting to Khajuraho:

Khajuraho is most easily reached by flight, or alternatively the new Khajuraho-Jhansi Link Express train service. The daily service covers the distance between Khajuraho and Jhansi in around four and half hours. Train 229A leaves Jhansi daily at 7.25 a.m. and arrives in Khajuraho at 12.10 p.m. Coming back, train 230A departs from Khajuraho at 12.30 p.m. and reaches Jhansi at 5 p.m. Avoid traveling to Khajuraho by road if possible. It's a very bumpy five to six hour drive from Jhansi. The bus can be particularly arduous, so hiring a car is a better option under the circumstances.

Khajuraho Opening Times:

The temples are open from sunrise until just before sunset.

Khajuraho Cost:

There is an admission cost of $US 5 for the western group of temples. The others are free. Children younger than 15 years are also free.

Khajuraho Festivals:

A week long classical dance festival is held in Khajuraho at the Chitragupta Temple complex each year, in late February/early March. The festival attracts performers and dance groups from all over India. It offers a captivating way of seeing the various classical styles of Indian dance, including Kathak, Bharat Natyam, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Manipuri and Kathakali. A large arts and crafts fair is also held during the festival.

Khajuraho Travel Tips:

Although Khajuraho is a little out of the way, don’t decide to give it a miss on this basis. No where else will you find such unique temples with meticulously detailed carvings. The temples are best known for their erotic sculptures. However, more than that, they show a celebration of love, life and worship. They also provide an uninhibited peek into ancient Hindu faith and Tantric practices. If you need another reason to visit, only half an hour away is the added attraction of the dense, wildlife filled jungle of Panna National Park. The best time to visit is during the cooler months from November to March.

Khajuraho Hotels:

There are plenty of places to stay in Khajuraho from cheap to luxury. Many are conveniently located close to the temples. Here are the 5 Best Khajuraho Hotels for All Budgets.

4. Ajanta and Ellora Caves

Astonishingly carved into hillside rock in the middle of nowhere are the Ajanta and Ellora caves. There are 34 caves at Ellora dating from between the 6th and 11th centuries AD, and 29 caves at Ajanta dating back to between the 2nd century BC and 6th century AD. 

The caves at Ajanta are all Buddhist, while the caves at Ellora are a mixture of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain.

Ajanta and Ellora Caves Location:

The caves are in northern Maharastra, around 400 kilometers (250 miles) from Mumbai.

Getting to the Ajanta and Ellora Caves:

The closest railway stations are in Aurangabad for the Ellora caves (45 minutes away) and Jalgaon for the Ajanta caves (1.5 hours away). There’s also an airport in Aurangabad. It’s possible to hire a car and drive between the two cave sites. Traveling time is around 2 hours.

Ajanta and Ellora Caves Opening Hours:

9am until sunset (around 5.30 p.m.). The Ajanta caves are closed on Mondays, and the Ellora caves are closed on Tuesdays. Both caves are open on national holidays. However, try to avoid visiting then as the crowds can be maddening and you won't have a peaceful experience.

Ajanta and Ellora Caves Cost:

Admission for foreigners is $US10 for the Ajanta caves. The Ellora caves are free to enter except for the magnificent open air Kailasa temple which charges $US 5. Children younger than 15 years are free at both places.

Ajanta and Ellora Festivals:

The four day Ellora Ajanta Festival is held at Soneri Mahal (Golden Palace), an historic 17th century architectural marvel in Aurangabad near Ellora, in the last week of November each year. The festival features some of the most distinguished singers and dancers of India.

Ajanta and Ellora Caves Travel Tips:

The most incredible thing about these caves is that they were crafted by hand, with only a hammer and chisel. While the Ajanta caves are rich in paintings and sculpture, the Ellora caves are renowned for their extraordinary architecture. You can get an excellent view and perspective of inside the Kailasa temple by climbing up the hill around it. Its immense size covers twice the area of the Pantheon in Athens and is one and a half times as high. Bring a torch with you to the Ajanta caves as many of them are quite dark and lighting is poor. The best time to visit is from November to March when it's cooler and dry.

Ajanta and Ellora Hotels:

The Hotel Kailas is located right opposite the Ellora caves. It's a relaxing, tranquil place with stone walls and a scenic landscape. Rates are 900 rupees ($20) for a hostel room, 1500 rupees ($35) for a cottage, and 2000 rupees ($50) for a cottage facing the caves. The hotel has plenty of amenities for guests including a restaurant, internet access, a library and games. You can also go paragliding. Quality accommodations at Ajanta are limited so if you need to stay in the area, it's best to head to the Maharastra Tourism Development Corporation's Holiday Resort in nearby Fardapur. Phone: 02438-244230.

5. Fatehpur Sikri

A city that was once the proud capital of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century, Fatehpur Sikri now stands deserted as a well preserved ghost town. It was abandoned by its occupants after only 15 years due to insufficient water supply.

Fatehpur Sikri was established by Emperor Akbar from the twin villages of Fatehpur and Sikri as tribute to famous Sufi saint, Sheikh Salim Chishti. The saint accurately predicted the birth of Emperor Akbar's much longed for son.

Fatehpur Sikri Location:

Fatehpur Sikri is located 40 kilometers (25 miles) from Agra, in Uttar Pradesh.

Getting to Fatehpur Sikri:

The most convenient way to visit Fatehpur Sikri is on a day trip from Agra. A taxi will cost around 700 rupees ($16) return. Alternatively you can travel by bus for less than Rs 50 ($1.20).

Fatehpur Sikri Opening Hours:

Sunrise until sunset.

 

Fatehpur Sikri Cost:

Admission for foreigners is $US5. Children younger than 15 years are free.

Fatehpur Sikri Travel Tips:

Constructed out of red sandstone, Fatehpur Sikri is full of regal palaces and courtyards. There are four main buildings, all full of architectural grandeur characteristic of the Mughal dynasty. These are the Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri Fort, Tomb of Salim Chishti, and the Panch Mahal. The best time to visit is during the cooler dry weather from November to March.

Fatehpur Sikri Hotels:

Accommodation is limited at Fatehpur Sikri so it's a good idea to stay in Agra, home of the Taj Mahal. However, if you want to be close to the site, the Goverdhan Tourist Complex is a decent place. It's clean with hot water, and prices range from 250 rupees to 700 rupees depending on the size of the room. Alternatively stay in Bharatpur, 25 minutes away, and check out the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary (also known as Keoladeo Ghana National Park) there as well. 

Agriculture Of India

India is growing at a massive rate as the number of skilled labour is growing gigantically. This fuels the economic growth as more monies enter the market in the form of taxes, investment loans etc.

However inflation is one aspect that is leading to the economy weakness of India. Surprisingly this year 2007 it dipped to 5.1% in May from the escalated 6.7% close to the estimate of 5% what the RBI had calculated. The rise in inflation is due to the inequalities in supply and demand. Demand is always outfacing supply and this puts the market out of track with increase in prices of special commodities and thus inflation.
In comparison to China, the inflation rate is as low as 3%. Although its interest rates remain lower than India. However it is able to control the inflation rate through sterilisation. In this process it sterilises the impact of money on reserves, while its central bank pays a meagre interest of 2% on bills that local domestic banks are made to purchase. On the other hand it earns a handsome amount on the American Treasury bonds, hence it is in profit and sterilisation is a profitable measure.
In India with the increasing deficits in the yearly income from the government and the high rate of interest it has to pay the banks, the debit does not offset the credit from the American Treasury bonds hence sterilisation of monies is not a profitable resource.
However with the burgeoning workforce the GDP is said to gain momentum in the next decade. This 2007 itself it GDP grew by 9.4%, the best ever in the past 18 years. While the current price of GDP in India is said to overtake Italy and France by 2020, other European countries like Germany, UK by 2025 and by 2035 Japan. By then it is expected to be the third largest economy following US and China.
By 2025 India’s growing economy will be about 60% of America’s and hence making it the 3rd largest economy. If it works equally harder within a decade it can overtake the UK’s GDP contribution. But then again it has to measure its worth within the country. Reduce the pressure on agriculture and give it more benefits, as around 40% of the income is lead by agriculture. Various other industrial and residential reforms along with a reduction in house renting rates have to be reduced to bring more satisfaction to the common man and indirectly healthy economic growth.

Weather Of India

The Indian weather is below zero degrees in the north as we have the Himalayan ranges from Jammu Kashmir stretching to Himachal Pradesh and a few up to Uttar Pradesh. On the other hand as the southern states are closer to the equator the temperature goes over 40 degrees centigrade.

The weather in India can be classified in four categories, winter – from November to February, summer – from march to may, the monsoons set in June – September, withdrawal of the monsoons in October with a hint of Spring and your back to a cooler climate in November.

So the average temperature weather of India is different at different places. Mumbai in Maharashtra and Kolkata in West Bengal have even temperatures as they are situated on the coastal area. So the entire coastal area that stretches from Maharashtra, including Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Bengal experience a mix in climatic conditions. It does not experience extreme climates like the northern states of India. It’s not too cold or too hot. Although in the recent years the weather has been changing, the Indian weather conditions have metamorphosed to get more rigid from the times of yore.

Even the temperature in Mumbai that is basically an island is facing extreme temperatures when it should have been not too hot or too cold due to the sea that is surrounding it. The average temperature Mumbai oscillates between 27 degrees and 34 degrees, but in the winter drops to 15 and 13 degrees and in the summer goes up to 37 degrees which is quite surprising. This is probably due to the global warming what environmentalists are speculating. So unless we take it up seriously, the weather of India will keep changing.

So if you love to travel, you should know the weather India, else your trip will be a fiasco. When it gets too hot in the south, people go to hill stations to cool off. Like lonavala, khandala in Maharashtra and simla in the north. During the monsoons people travel to Sikkim, or other coastal areas like Goa, Kerala to enjoy the greenery and waterfalls. North is the time when the cool winds blow. So make a trip to Rajasthan, Delhi or Agra in winter to enjoy the chilly northern winds then go south for your dose of sun tan.

Arts of India

Indian Architecture

Indian civilization has witnessed great many enduring achievements over a period of thousand years. It is not easy to talk about all these unique achievements but our site strives to provide you every bit of possible information about beauty of Indian as a whole. One such legendary achievements of Indian civilization is undoubtedly its architecture. Indian architecture is unique, magnificent and multi-dimensional. Credit all these aspects to changing geographical structure and constantly shifting socio-economic dimensions. Indian architecture has kept on evolving since last hundreds of years and yet we seem to dwarf our previous achievements with every passing day.

Indian architecture is truly unique because of an attractive mix of different types of architectural styles. The styles kept changing because of diverse eras, rulers and historical changes. Also the fact that, India is a mass of vast diversities, a range of architectural specimens have evolved over the course of time. The continuity in excellence has always been there in Indian architecture.

The different periods of Indian history stamped its own beauty on Indian architecture. The first sign of rich and well managed Indian architecture was visible during Indus Valley civilization period. There are plenty of substantial evidences of extensive town planning. Buddhism in India brought with it large number of magnificent buildings. Examples include the Great Stupa at Sanchi and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta.

If we look at South India, rich examples of splendid Indian architecture are the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram and the temples of Kanchipuram. All the dynasties in South India like the Chola, Hoyasala and Vijayanagar, Pallavas rulers did remarkable job in the field of architecture. North India had unique style of architecture called as the Nagara style architecture. Arrival of Mughals resulted in new architectural style in India- the Indo-Islamic architecture. The final style of architecture was seen during colonization of India. Known as the Indo-Saracenic architecture, this style had combined features of Hindu, Islamic and western elements. The examples of this style can be seen in institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as post offices, railway stations, rest houses and government buildings.

Metal Work in India

One of the glorious art works in India is the art of metal work. History pages tell us that metal work in India has been in existence for more than 5000 years now. Ancient craftsmen in India were extremely skilled and they possessed top level quality in their crafts. You must have seen the beautiful image of the dancing girl from Mohanjodaro and that will give you an idea about how rich Indian art was even during the ancient ages. The high level of workmanship attained by ancient craftsmen is truly legendary. Metal work in India has traditionally used different combination of metals like copper, silver, iron etc. Alloys materials have also been used in abundance. White metal, bronze, bell metal etc were major alloys used for making a variety of items like pots, pans, utensils, photo frames, sculptures of deities, mythological figures and animals etc.  

 The field of metal work has flourished on variety of styles. Different regions in India have their own style of metal work and each one of them is equally beautiful. Ancient rulers in India also promoted and encouraged metal work culture. One of the finest examples of metal work is the iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi) made during Maurya Kingdom. It is truly excellent. Chola period witnessed great heights reached by metal craft. Bronze sculptures were created at furious pace and they all are classes apart. Chola craftsmen are believed to be extremely talented at crafting aesthetic metal works.

 In the modern times, Moradabad in Uttar Pradesh is renowned for its brass items. One will find a wide range of household items being made here. Decorating of these metal works is par excellence. If one goes to Ladakh area of Kashmir, iron and brass are used for making traditional vessels. You can see the beauty of metal work in household items like bowls, samovars, plates and trays etc Kashmir. Other famous states for excellent metal work are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil Nadu etc.

Indian Carpets

The glorious land of India is bestowed with innumerable beauties. One such beauty is Indian craft tradition. Even within the craft tradition, there are numerous sub-parts and each of them needs to be discussed individually. In this article, we will focus upon carpets. Carpet weaving is an ancient tradition of India that has remained in existence since centuries. Carpets are made from variety of materials like silk, wool, jute, grass, bamboo and cotton. Floorings like durries and mats are made from different materials. If we go back to history pages, the tradition of carpets weaving actually flourished during medieval period when Mughals brought this technique from Persia. Mughal period was famous for its illustrated court life and miniature paintings. Floral motifs were totally redefined during this period. Mughal carpets were no exception to this culture of excellence.

Famous Mughal ruler Akbar is credited with laying the foundation of carpet weaving in India. Different carpet weaving centers were established at places like Lahore, Agra and Delhi. Indian carpet weaving tradition owes a lot to Mughal tradition for introducing bright colors and silk carpets. Hand knotted carpets were extremely elaborate and attractive. The expertise of the artists can be guessed from the fact that some silk carpets had no less than over 4000 knots per square inch.

Different states in India have their own carpet weaving tradition. Each state has its own expertise and peculiar qualities. Indian carpet tradition has successfully managed to remold itself according to the need of changing times. Carpet weavers in India are very skilled and have wonderful artistic abilities. Indian carpets are quite popular in foreign markets and credit should go to craft work of Indian weavers. Some of the famous carpet types in India are chain stitch rugs, namdas, gabbe woolen carpets and tufted woolen carpets. The major carpet weaving industry in India is based in eastern UP, in Bhadohi- Mirzapur belt.

M.F.Hussain

The world of Indian art and culture is truly mesmerising. The more you delve deeper into it, better are the chances of you being surprised with unknown of golden facts. Art is surely one of the best mediums of expression. Indian art world has always been rich since ancient ages. Archaeologists have kept finding wonderful proofs of richness of Indian art. Where there is art there must be artists. Every era in glorious Indian history is blessed with huge talents. Modern era is no exception. Since the independence and complete revolution witnessed in Indian art world thanks to advent of Progressive Artists Group, many new unconventional and hidden talents emerged on the horizon. One of them was M F Hussain.

The name of M.F.Hussain needs no introduction. Probably, he is one artist who made world of painting familiar to common people. He represents contemporary Indian art. He has redefined the way public perceives art and artists. He is fiercely open-minded and independent. He started from the scratch by struggling during his initial days. He began his glorious journey by making film posters. He was born in 1915 at Pandharpur in Maharashtra.

Maqbool Fida Husain first learned the art of calligraphy and also dabbled in poetry. He shifted to Mumbai to make a career in art and joined prestigious J.J.School of Arts. His strength lied in his experimental nature and he also won several awards because of that. He loves to paint trying human circumstances and has carved a niche for himself. He has been awarded Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri and Padma Vibhushan among others. He has painted several mythological characters. Countless solo exhibitions of his art works have been organized in India as well as others parts of the world. He has got an international fame and reputation. M.F.Hussain has also made feature films like “Through the Eyes of a Painter”, “Gajagamini” and “Meenaxi: a tale of three cities”. Hussain, no doubt is one of shining luminaries of Indian art who helped it in reaching new heights.

Indian Art

The art that you see today has not evolved from nothingness. It had always been there even in ancient India.
Sometimes art stems from the religion you are following. So if you are Muslim the threads that you follow will be a little different from that of a Hindu or a Christian. If not religion then language and thought processes do matter. All the variations in the country are primarily because of the invaders that left their imprints behind.
From the Gupta dynasty to the Mughal Empire, carvings and culture to each empire has influenced the country even though they were set in the 16th century. If you look back from when time began, primitive men were known to communicate through symbols. They devised art in the form of carvings on rocks with tools they honed from animal bones.
Years later in the excavations of Mahenjodara and Harappa sculptures and art forms of highly intellect men were found in the form of symbols and sculptures. This shows that the ancient India figure sculpture had already evolved itself. The dimensions and creativity found showed that the people living there were highly brainy as coins with symbols on it also existed.
Art in ancient India is also visible in the carvings of palaces, forts and temples. The beautiful work of art still stands tall at various locations in India. One example the world is looking at is the Taj Mahal. Right from the marble that is used to the artistic work done on the tiles to the ceiling show how creatively inclined individuals were even centuries ago.
They wrote on papyrus with pens made of feathers. They dipped in ink and wrote literature that has formed ancient archives. They had artists that painted them sitting in their royal throne then they were framed and put up in one of the most noticed niches. Colour then was also discovered that would last on paper and canvas.
Today many ideas are reclaimed from ancient Indian art and brought to light with a few brush strokes that make it look different. People still have a taste for ancient architecture and revolve their house around this theme. Many also have palates for the modern style, but a keener look and the ancient art theme in a house brings glory and uniqueness that will make it stand out against any competition.

 

 

 

 

 

Religion of India

Every mile that you walk in India you will encounter a completely new culture, language and religion. There are over a thousand religions and languages in India, with Hinduism in the majority.
As the country houses god fearing people, religion in India is deep rooted in every household. There are prayers before an auspicious occasion, after an occasion and at various times. Infact the day begins with a prayer and a shot puja.
India region changes at different locations. From paganism to having a name for their gods, there has been a sea-change in what people have been praying to. Except for tribals that live in the deeper parts of India, religion to them is set on a different tangent.
As India is a confluence of many religions and cultures you find various worshipping sites. One city would house, temples, churches and mosques along with niche worshipping sites. Building a holy shrine is not possible without the authority of the government. Only once it passes through the government can construction begin. However the government does grant permission after sufficient research.
Number of religions of India outlasts the number of religions found in any other country. Unlike other foreign countries that have one or a maximum of two religions, India is the world’s biggest democratic country with the maximum number of religions.
The main religions of India are Hinduism with 82% followed by Muslims 13%, Christians 2.34 % which are followed by Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and other minor communities.
However Hinduism is the primary term for many smaller classes and communities that fall under this sector. It includes the Gujarathis, Marathis, Punjabis, and various sub castes in these secondary religions. But most of them read the holy scriptures of the Bhagwad Gita or the Vedas.
Buddhism is one religion that had been born in India, but has spread outside India more than the native country. China, Tibet and other surrounding nations have embraced Buddhism, it is one religion that is even spreading in the western world.

Indian Wedding Stationery

Indian weddings are something that is so unique to the country. They are colorful, grand and loud. The Indian wedding season is around November-December which is surely an experience to cherish. These weddings are full of rituals, prayers, feasts, songs and dances and so much more.
Exclusivity and uniqueness is something that Indian wedding couples always look out for. Everyone wishes that their wedding ceremony should be grand, exceptional and different! Most couples start their wedding planning and preparation with wedding stationery. Wedding stationery involves selection of various themes, colors and designs for wedding invitation cards, wedding albums, thank you cards, other ceremony invitations cards, blessings and wishes cards and so much more.
In India, wedding stationery means a lot and hence needs careful selection. Most wedding stationery suppliers can provide with all the material required for the same. One can even consult a wedding stationery designer to take tips from him or her on how to make your own wedding stationery.
Personalized and customized wedding stationery is the best possible way to make your wedding different and noticeable amongst others. There are a lot many free samples of wedding stationery that couples and their families can choose from. People usually choose handmade paper which can look very elegant to make unique wedding stationery especially the invitation cards. Handcrafted wedding stationery items lure everyone’s attention. Because of their neat carvings and adorned crafts, they are acclaimed by most people as they showcase true Indian designs. Some people wish a sober sophisticated wedding ceremony. These couples can design their wedding stationery either with the help of a professional wedding stationery designer or all by themselves.

Geography of India

India is divided in to 28 states with six union territories. The country is bordered by Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Maldives.India geography is a motley of hills, plateaus, mountains, rivers, deserts, and rainforests. So you will find different weathers, climates, which ultimately influence cultures and traditions.

To begin from the North – India takes pride in presenting the world with the highest mountain peaks K2 that is currently in the disputed area between Pakistan and India. In the undisputed area of Kashmir, Kanchanjunga which is at 28,208 feet is the highest peak. Further down the Thar Desert and other dry lands in Rajasthan are encountered. Towards the Southern tip lush green lands are visible.

The geography and climate of India are interrelated. It is due to the geography of a particular region it faces a particular type of climate. For instance the North experiences glaciers and extreme winter, yet the winds that blow towards them are blocked by the Himalayan ranges making the climate bearable. Extreme climates are faced in the dry regions of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Eastern states. But towards Maharashtra the climate is neither too hot nor too cold, due to the coastal lining. Similar is the climate throughout the coastal regions from Kerala, to Tamil Nadu to West Bengal.

The variations in the geography India are visible when one travels to the different parts of the country. It affects food habits, living conditions and occupations. The vegetables and fruits that grow too are all dependant on the geographical conditions. For instance fruits grow well in cold climates, hence apples from Himachal Pradesh and Simla are very much in demand. Coconut is everywhere in the South, hence for any dish that requires coconut, Southern products are only demanded.

But this was not the situation in ancient time. The geography of ancient India has changed since then. There were many rivers that flowed through the country making the soil fertile. Some of the gigantic ones were Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. Towns became cities that developed on the banks of the river and helped prosperity. However these rivers have thinned in their flow since the centuries past.

Politics of India

The structure of India’s federal–or union–system not only creates a strong central government but also has facilitated the concentration of power in the central government in general and in particular in the Office of the Prime Minister. This centralization of power has been a source of considerable controversy and political tension. It is likely to further exacerbate political conflict because of the increasing pluralism of the country’s party system and the growing diversity of interest-group representation.

Once viewed as a source of solutions for the country’s economic and social problems, the Indian polity is increasingly seen by political observers as the problem. When populist political appeals stir the passions of the masses, government institutions appear less capable than ever before of accommodating conflicts in a society mobilized along competing ethnic and religious lines. In addition, law and order have become increasingly tenuous because of the growing inability of the police to curb criminal activities and quell communal disturbances. Indeed, many observers bemoan the “criminalization” of Indian politics at a time when politicians routinely hire “muscle power” to improve their electoral prospects, and criminals themselves successfully run for public office. These circumstances have led some observers to conclude that India has entered into a growing crisis of governability.

Few analysts would deny the gravity of India’s problems, but some contend they have occurred amidst the maturation of civil society and the emergence of new, more democratic political practices. Backward Classes, the Dalits, and tribal peoples increasingly have refused to rest content with the patronage and populism characteristic of the “Congress system.” Mobilization of these groups has provided a viable base for the political opposition and unraveled the fabric of the Congress. Since the late 1970s, there has been a proliferation of nongovernmental organizations. These groups made new demands on the political system that required a substantial redistribution of political power, economic resources, and social status.
Whether or not developments in Indian politics exacerbate the continuing problems or give birth to greater democracy broadly hinges on efforts to resolve three key issues. How will India’s political system, now more than ever based on egalitarian democratic values, accommodate the changes taking place in its hierarchical social system? How will the state balance the need to recognize the interests of the country’s remarkably heterogeneous society with the imperatives of national unity? And, in the face of the declining legitimacy of the Indian state and the continuing development of civil society, can the Indian state regenerate its legitimacy, and if it is to do so, how should it redefine the boundaries between state and society? India has confronted these issues throughout much of its history. These issues, with their intrinsic tensions, will continue to serve as sources of change in the continuing evolution of the Indian polity.

History of India

The history of India dates back to the time when humans as tribals existed. The world was one huge country then, but due to the volcanic eruptions large masses were separated. Over decades of volcanoes surfacing, the plates of the earth separated themselves forming 5 huge masses what we today call continents.
India lies in the Asian Continent, one of the biggest continents in the world that was invaded by many kings bringing along with them paraphernalia of religion, customs and traditions. History of ancient India can be visible through the Mohanjadaro and Harappa ruins. The Aryans that invaded through the north happened during the vedic periods. It is during this time that Hinduism was born and spread.
The history of Buddhism in India began with king Ashoka. He spread Buddhism and it was during his reign that maximum numbers were converted to Buddhism. So strong was the influence that it spread outside the country to other parts of the Asian continent.
Islam entered somewhere in the eighth century with kings like Lodhis, Tughlaqs and most powerful of them all – the Mughal empire. They were in power for many generations and thus spread Islam as far and wide as they could.
Wars were an integral part of life in ancient India. So if not within the country outsiders were always invading our country. It began with the Dutch, followed by the French and the Portuguese and ultimately by the British.
The English won over many parts on India at major battles of Panipat, Plassey and Panipat. They spread their reign from the north of the country to the south, from the east to the west. The British East India company was formed and the English squeezed out as much as they could from the Indian soil during their reign that lasted for over a century.
Indian history has been imprinted by blood stains of the freedom fighters, marksmen of the Shivaji and Mughal era and an influx of various cultures and traditions. 

Modern History of India

The history of India dates back to the time when humans as tribals existed. The world was one huge country then, but due to the volcanic eruptions large masses were separated. Over decades of volcanoes surfacing, the plates of the earth separated themselves forming 5 huge masses what we today call continents.
India lies in the Asian Continent, one of the biggest continents in the world that was invaded by many kings bringing along with them paraphernalia of religion, customs and traditions. History of ancient India can be visible through the Mohanjadaro and Harappa ruins. The Aryans that invaded through the north happened during the vedic periods. It is during this time that Hinduism was born and spread.
The history of Buddhism in India began with king Ashoka. He spread Buddhism and it was during his reign that maximum numbers were converted to Buddhism. So strong was the influence that it spread outside the country to other parts of the Asian continent.
Islam entered somewhere in the eighth century with kings like Lodhis, Tughlaqs and most powerful of them all – the Mughal empire. They were in power for many generations and thus spread Islam as far and wide as they could.
Wars were an integral part of life in ancient India. So if not within the country outsiders were always invading our country. It began with the Dutch, followed by the French and the Portuguese and ultimately by the British.
The English won over many parts on India at major battles of Panipat, Plassey and Panipat. They spread their reign from the north of the country to the south, from the east to the west. The British East India company was formed and the English squeezed out as much as they could from the Indian soil during their reign that lasted for over a century.
Indian history has been imprinted by blood stains of the freedom fighters, marksmen of the Shivaji and Mughal era and an influx of various cultures and traditions.

Education in India

Gauging the international trends, several new age education programs are set up and tailored as per our national adaptability. Being in total sync with the demands, our schools and colleges are including realistic practical approach that is interesting and adaptive. More support is given to educate the underprivileged and girl children. Schools of the government backing, train the teachers accordingly to get the new methods of teaching in place.

Education in India is also including elements that are international and yet modulated to maintain our heritage and culture. Engineering schools, PH D levels and also master degrees in reputed colleges hold great esteem for career options. Vocational guidance in India is also concentrating its efforts on practical tests and options inorder to coach students in the right direction. Schools also focus on all-around-development of children which is essential to become a go-getter.

Even in the remote villages bal vadi and other social organizations conduct tutorials for adult education thereby able to emancipate the backward class. The aim is to move to literacy and increase awareness among people. It is also true that urban sectors are facing a large uncertainty to accommodate students even in merit list. But the ministry has fine tuned the placements and given opportunity to all children by regularizing the same.

Education is also regarded via valid educational institutions in the distance category. The courses are detailed and online education is the new age mantra. This allows many people who are working full time or who have paucity for time to partake in formal courses. There are certified courses with practical applications in jewelry design, fashion and languages. This gives a broad picture that India is heading towards globalization in the field of education.

With international curriculum and new education system in place a lot is looking positive in the movement of education. Courses, international faculty, boarding schools are all being upbeat of the importance of customized courses that take the student in a desired direction. NGO’s also look into the primary level of teaching including qualified personnel’s and teachers who are willing to make the change at a micro level by educating the people who are under poverty line.

Culture of India

India is a boiling pot of flavours from all around the world. This is because of the invasions that our country has succumbed to from time immemorial. The Aryans, the Guptas, The Mughals, The Marathas, The Dutch, French and ultimately The English have left lasting imprints on the soil of the country.
So India’s culture today is a mix of what has happened during the princely times, the Raj and the motley of the contemporary world. The society is formed on what have been the perceptions and what the modern world requires. But Indian cultures are rooted deeply within religion. An individual acts or reacts based on what has been his upbringing that is indirectly affected by his religion.
Cultures and foods of India is directly related. The culture of a person determines how he sits, talks, walks and what he eats. For instance in the south, a meal is incomplete without rice. And 90% of every dish contains coconut. On the other hand, in the north wheat flour products are mandatory in every dish. So be it in the form of puris or parathas, hail the wheat flour. This is because that particular resource grows in their very backyard. So access is simple. This enhances the product usage and adds to the culture nimbus.
Respect elders, talk in a low tone, be god fearing and work hard are a few of the characters parents teach irrespective of where you live in India. In adulthood creativity is encouraged and individuals take up various arts and crafts that reflect the culture of the country. Even the festivities and rituals are so meticulously celebrated that one can see it has been handed down from generations keeping the culture alive.
Infact the distinct culture of India has attracted people from around the world. No doubt tourism has been escalating year after year. This is because India is rich in heritage and culture and has opened its arms wide open for countries outside to embrace.

Beauty of India

Picturesque, breath-taking, vivid, eye-catching and mesmerizing – Munnar is one of the wonders of India. A hill-station located in Kerala, Munnar is a rediscovery of the age old connection of nature and mankind. A land where three rivers touch each other, a land which grows green in abundance, and a land that takes you to a beautiful world you do not wish to return from. Munnar has been a favrioute travel destination for many as it offers you sprawling green plantations of tea, coffee and cardamom, winding lanes and curvy roads, adventure trekking and all that you need at a good holiday destination.

This is also a great place for treks as Munnar has one of the highest peaks in South India called the Anamudi which towers over 2695 meters. Another reason that Munnar is famous for is the Neelakurinji, a flower that blooms every 12 years. The last bloom was in 2006, where the entire hillside appeared blue. As soon as you step into this paradise, the sweet fragrance of cinnamon, clove, peppercorns and nutmeg will captivate you.
Some of the popular places to visit are the Matupetty which is popular for its specialized dairy farming industry. It is also the ideal location for trekking. You can also visit the Kundala lake nearby with boating facilities being made available for the visitors. The lake is created by a small hydroelectric dam project which is surrounded by steep green hills and misty woods. It is indeed a beautiful site to stare at.


You can also visit the Rajamala and the Eravikulam National Park which has half the world population of the Nilgiri Tahr which is a rare species of a mountain goat. If you can looking for a secluded undisturbed place, you can visit Devikulam which is a small hill station Located in close proximity to Munnar. Devikulam has one of the best flora and fauna I have seen. It has green velvet lawns and pristine gentle waterfalls with cool mountain air blowing that will leave you nothing but spellbound.

Other places that you can visit are Potheamedu which is one of the major plantation hubs of Munnar and  Pallivasal where the first Hydro Electric project in Kerala is setup. You can also see Chithirapuram which is a small village with little cottages and bungalows.
You can reach Munnar by road from Ernakulam, Thekkady, Thiruvananthapuram, Palani and Coimbatore.  The nearest airport is Cochin and the nearest railway station is Aluva.  The best time to visit Munnar is between August and March. We advise you to book your stay in advance.

Beauty

Fashion was once considered only for the elite. As it was an expensive deal to be in vogue and stay trendy. Clothes were expensive and to colour co-ordinate them you must have cash stacked in your pocket.
But in the 21st century fashion is available to the common man. It has become inexpensive and so the fashion conscious can stay upbeat to what is in trend. This has happened with an influx of fashionable items made available in every market. Fashion in India changes with every season. Be it dresses, skirts, trousers or shirts India fashions has a taste for every palate.
But it can be surely differentiated in the villages of India, where the fashion bug has not yet bitten all. So there is a stark difference in India metro fashion and that in the remote regions.
Summers call in for whites, but whites could be ribbed cotton or printed muslin, trousers would mostly be linen with bright sandals. Add to it some long colourful necklaces, earrings and a bracelet and you can look your best.
The cream of fashion comes from Indian designers that have taken the world by storm. Designs of Ritu Kumar and Ritu Beri have walked international ramps taking India to the world. Particularly the fashions from India that are preferred the world over are the kurtis, satin shirts and linen clothes with innovative prints that nobody has seen before. The best part being they look good on Indian skin implicating that the materials and colours can enhance further the white skin.
Fashion designing in India had always been there and has churned out some of the best Indian fashion designers like Wendell Rodricks, Sabyasachi Mukherjee, Manish Malhotra and a host of other designers. With their success in the market more and more students have taken fashion designing seriously and have registered at India fashion schools like National Institute of design, National Institute of Fashion Technology, JD Institute of Fashion designing. Women oriented colleges like Nirmala Niketan and Sophia College too have diplomas in fashion designing. These a few renowned Indian Institute of fashion designing.
Once you complete your diploma, you get placements in well recognised fashion outlets. You could design for kids, children or adults. The options are vast and with the increasing number of fashion conscious people you meet you will realise that more and more fashion designers are wanted.

Population of India

The Indian economy is burgeoning and will soon to overtake the best in the world by 2020. With this good news the bad news is that Indian population is burgeoning. Increasing every minute.
The current India population is said to be 1,129,866,154 by July 2007. With this number you can see where this country is heading. It is the most populous country just lagging behind China with a few hundreds as a difference and in the next five years is said to overtake China too, to become the most populated country in the world.
Every year we add an entire Australia to our population and there is no stopping. Indian population problems stem from the fact of poverty, illiteracy and government rules. Unlike China that has a communist rule; India cannot condemn parents for giving birth to more than 1 child.
Poverty is a vicious circle. People who are poor think that children are their asset and keep giving birth. Their idea being more children more hands to bring in more money. But they are so poor that they cannot keep their children healthy, the basic food intake of 1200 calories for men and 1600 for women are not men leading to ill-health or disease. Yet the population growth in India is 1% of the current numbers. That means we add and approximate of 1 crore every year to the current number.
The age structure of the population is 31% between 0-14, 63% between 15-64 and 5% with individuals who are 65 and above. The female to male population is much less leaving more males than females.
India’s population has 80% Hindus, around 13% are Muslims, Christian are around 2.3%, Sikh are 1.9% and others are around 1.8%.
With the increase in medical rehabilitation and facilities, life expectancy has increased, so the average Indian man lives upto 66 years while the woman lives upto 71 years.
Government polices encourage people to have only 2 children, the modern metro population seriously believe this but what about the remote villages. It is only when the entire country joins hands that we can bring down the population of India.

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

The Constitution of India was drafted by the Constituent Assembly. The Constituent Assembly held its first sitting on the 9th December, 1946. It reassembled on the 14th August, 1947, as the sovereign Constituent Assembly for the Dominion of India. The proposed Constitution had been outlined by various committees of the Assembly like:

a) Union Constitution Committee
b) The Union Powers Committee
c) Committee on Fundamental Rights.

It was after a general discussion on the reports of these Committees that the Assembly appointed a Drafting Committee on the 29th August, 1947. The Drafting Committee, under the Chairmanship of Dr. Ambedkar, embodied the decision of the Assembly with alternative and additional proposals in the form of a 'Draft Constitution of India which was published in February, 1948. The Constituent Assembly next met in November, 1948, to consider the provisions of the Draft, clause by clause. After several sessions the consideration of the clauses or second reading was completed by the 17th October, 1949. The Constituent Assembly again sat on the 14th November, 1949, for the third reading and finished it on the 26th November, 1949, on which date the Constitution received the signature of the President of the Assembly and was declared as passed. The provisions relating to citizenship, elections, provisional Parliament, temporary and transitional provisions, were given immediate effect, i.e., from November 26, 1949. The rest of the Constitution came into force on the 26th January, 1950, and this date is referred to in the Constitution as the Date of its Commencement.

PREAMBLE OF INDIA

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA,  having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

Purpose of Having a Preamble:

The Preamble to our Constitution serves two purposes: -

A) It indicates the source from which the Constitution derives its authority;
B) It also states the objects, which the Constitution seeks to establish and promote.

The Preamble seeks to establish what Mahatma Gandhi described as The India of my Dreams, "…an India in which the poorest shall feel that it is their country in whose making they have an effective voice; …an India in which all communities shall leave I perfect harmony. There can be no room in such an India for the curse of untouchability or the curse of Intoxicating drinks and drugs. Woman will enjoy as the same rights as man."

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

The Fundamental Rights embodied in the Indian constitution acts as a guarante that all Indian citizens can and will lead their lifes in peace as long as they live in Indian democracy. These civil liberties take precedence over any other law of the land. They include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, such as equality before the law, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of association and peaceful assembly, freedom of religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights such as habeas corpus.

In addition, the Fundamental Rights for Indians are aimed at overturning the inequities of past social practices. They have also been used to in sucessfully abolishing the "untouchability"; prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth; and forbid trafficking in human beings and also the forced labor. They go beyond conventional civil liberties in protecting cultural and educational rights of minorities by ensuring that minorities may preserve their distinctive languages and establish and administer their own education institutions.

Originally, the right to property was also included in the Fundamental Rights; however, the Forty-fourth Amendment, passed in 1978, revised the status of property rights by stating that "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law." Freedom of speech and expression, generally interpreted to include freedom of the press, can be limited "in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence"

Here we have defined the six fundamental rights as per the constitution of India:-

1. Right to Equality
2. Right to Particular Freedom
3. Cultural and Educational Rights
4. Right to Freedom of Religion
5. Right Against Exploitation and
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies


FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

hese Fundamental rights have been provided at the cost of some fundamental duties. These are considered as the duties that must be and should be performed by every citizen of India. These fundamental duties are defined as:

It shall be the duty of every citizens of India: -

    * To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem;
    * To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
    * To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
    * To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
    * To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
    * To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
    * To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;
    * To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
    * To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
    * To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE OF THE UNION

The part that describes the official language of the Indian democracy have to be written to promote a feeling of unity among Indian citizens. As we know that even today anywhere between 300 to 1,000 languages are spoken in India, this makes an integral part of the Indian constitution.

The official language of India shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.

Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.

Notwithstanding anything in this article, Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the said period of fifteen years, of-

The English language, or

The Devanagari form of numerals, for such purposes as may be specified in the law.

Regional Languages:

Article 345. Official language or languages of a State:-

Subject to the provisions of articles 346 and 347, the Legislature of a State may by law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the State or Hindi as the language or languages to be used for all or any of the official purposes of that State:

Provided that, until the Legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, the English language shall continue to be used for those official purposes within the State for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of this Constitution.

Article 346. Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union: -

The language for the time being authorised for use in the Union for official purposes shall be the official language for communication between one State and another State and between a State and the Union:

Provided that if two or more States agree that the Hindi language should be the official language for communication between such States, that language may be used for such communication.

Article 347. Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State: -

On a demand being made in that behalf the President may, if he is satisfied that a substantial proportion of the population of a State desire the use of any language spoken by them to be recognised by that State, direct that such language shall also be officially recognised throughout that State or any part thereof for such purpose as he may specify.

Special Directives: -

Article 350. Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances: -

Every person shall be entitled to submit a representation for the redress of any grievance to any officer or authority of the Union or a State in any of the languages used in the Union or in the State, as the case may be.

Article 350A. Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage: -

It shall be the endeavour of every State and of every local authority within the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups; and the President may issue such directions to any State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities.

Article 350B. Special Officer for linguistic minorities: -

There shall be a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to be appointed by the President. It shall be the duty of the Special Officer to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under this Constitution and report to the President upon those matters at such intervals as the President may direct, and the President shall cause all such reports to be laid before each House of Parliament, and sent to the Governments of the States concerned.

Article 351. Directive for development of the Hindi language: -

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.